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Slaveholders often renamed newly acquired slaves; but self-naming by slaves, which also occurred, is likely to be underreported in the records, which were mainly created by and for slaveholders. Some scholars of slavery have come to view the names and naming of enslaved people as agauge of many aspects oflife and culture during enslavement and of howcustoms changed over time. They cut it off from OCTAVIA. The Genealogy Source Table Collection includes 10 blank, editable source tables for death certificates, city directories, obituaries and funeral programs. Users without a subscription are not able to see the full content on Alfred "Teen" Blackburn (1842-1951), one of the last living survivors of slavery in the United States who had a clear recollection of it. Political Participation in the Nineteenth Century Atlantic Portugal and Brazile in the Age of Revolutions, Poverty in the Early Modern English Atlantic, Reconstruction, Democracy, and United States Imperialism, Settlement and Region in British America, 1607-1763, Slavery in British and American Literature, Slavery in Dutch America and the West Indies, Slavery in North America, The Growth and Decline of. . I am an engineer by day, but my true passion lies in genealogy. Search 31 million family names. Evidence indicates that many enslaved parents named their children after the first generation or so of family members brought to America. Love you, They called me OCK. The most common origin for surnames is that enslaved people initially used the surname of either their mother or their father, if they knew what those names were. Robyn. Tell me the name you were called before you met Phillip Fry? The population was more than 16 million and the industrial revolution was under way, which debunks any perception of a broadly colonial society. Hi Jann, Thank you for posing your question. Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts South Atlantic Creole Archipelagos Of course my mother wasnt a Bradley fore she married. Thank you as always, your posts are so helpful. My mothers name was Octavia Smith and it was from her that I got it but where the name came from to her I never knew. Seating is limited. Best of luck to you, One name you find frequently used was Freeman or Freedmen to declare their new freedom. The Language of Names. I want.to.know.where we (who are.descendants.of.freed.people.who.got sent.back.to Sierra Leone.from.maybe Nova Scotia.) Anthropologist Meyer Fortes's observation that the naming practices of any society "epitomize personal experiences, historical happenings, attitudes to life, and cultural ideas and values" holds particularly true for African American enslaved people. Q. A krio from.Freetown Sierra Leone. The different spellings are due to the non-consistent spelling rules in Norway in the 1700s and 1800s. Tags: African American Names, African American Surnames, African Names, Black Surnames, Last Slave Owner, Plantation Owners, plantation slavery, Slave Family, Slave Naming Patterns, slave trade. Examples include: Francois, Jean, Pierre, and Leon for men; and Manon, Delphine, Marie Louise, Celeste, and Eugenie for women. The existence of those surnames in the area would help to verify, but also, you are fortunate to have the important oral history of that name change in the first place, since so many of us dont. Col. Joshua John Ward of Georgetown, South Carolina: 1,130 Known as "King of the Rice Planters," Ward had 1,130 enslaved Blacks on the Brookgreen plantation in South Carolina. In Greek mythology, Daphne was the nymph daughter of Peneus, a river god. "The past is not dead. . Spencer is a name that has everything: it's both distinguished sounding and accessible, dignified but Spencer Tracy-like friendly. However the frequent rebellions by . Robyn. Slavery. If the former slave had been befriended or assisted in getting established after the Civil War, they might have taken that person's name. Some of them developed a long-term relationship with one of the female slaves. Here are an even dozen, pretty much forgotten slanglike words or sayings from the 19th century, rediscovered while delving in the archives and with added guidance from James Maitman's 1891 . Claudia Bautista,Santa Monica, Calif. You must have JavaScript enabled to use this form. When I was born my mother was known as Phillis Smith and I took the name of Smith too. . Thomas mother, younger brothers and sisters remained with the Black family. Slavery. Rounding out the Top 40, here are the next 30 most common names among African-Americans and Caribbean people: Taylor (Jayceon Terrel Taylor "The Game") Wilson (Charlie Wilson) Moore (Shemar Moore) White (Barry White) Lewis (Carl Lewis) Walker (Jimmie J. J. Walker) Green (Al Green) Thompson (Kenan Thompson) Washington (Denzel Washington) Another slave named Bill who attended the sheep became Bill Shepherd. This website uses cookies to improve your experience while you navigate through the website. The new surnames, usually not taken from a former slave owner, included: Williams, Jones, Johnson, Smith, Jackson, Thomas, Brown, Walker, Davis, Green, Robinson, Scott, Harris, Turner, and Anderson. Place names that were disproportionately popular among Black Americans in history include Boston, Jamaica, York, and Africa. Davis: This name is a patronymic of David. Well, Ive gone off on a tangent again;) But thank you again for writing and thank you for the cemetery work (especially trying to include African-Americans you are doing that will be of benefit to others. Where did you get the maiden name of Smith from? Our headquarters are located at: 89 South Street, Suite 401, Boston, MA 02111. Dick Lewis Barnett and Phillip Fry were African American veterans of the Union Army during the Civil War. Theres always more to learn! [15] Alice Clifton (c. 1772-unknown), as an enslaved teenager, she was a defendant in an infanticide trial in 1787. In the early years, especially between the 1860 and 1880s, families even changed a surname several times until they settled on a certain one. In the late 1830s, Nathaniel Terry of Todd County, Kentucky died leaving a plantation of fifty slaves. In order to receive their pensions decades later, these former soldiers and their family members had to demonstrate to the government that they were who they claimed to be. 44. We also use third-party cookies that help us analyze and understand how you use this website. But if Romeo and Venus are now deemed baby-appropriate, why not Apollo? Questions about slave naming intersect with some of the major debates in slavery studies (especially regarding Creolization and the formation of Atlantic Creoles) and can illuminate issues about the ethnicity of African slaves, the personhood and agency of those enslaved, the nature of kinship structures among the enslaved, and the survival of African cultural practices in the diaspora. Robinson: A patronymic of the name Robin. Edited by Gabriele vom Bruck and Barbara Bodenhorn, 178-199. This event is $12. Currently, the most popular Black last name in America is Williams, with a total count of 774,920 people who have the surname. Abel, et al. This unique-sounding French last name means 'bold' or 'daring'. Maria Aparecida Schumaher, Erico teixeira Vital Brazil. Melvin, Clark is a common surname of Anglo-Scottish origin. One of the less well known aspects of the history of slavery is how many and how often non-whites owned and traded slaves in early America. I also meant to email you and tell you how I enjoyed your article in the last NGSQ. David Nicolle, Graham Turner: Poitiers AD 732: Charles Martel Turns the Islamic Tide. Thomas: Thomas is a common surname of biblical origin meaning twin. The naming of slaves has not been treated in dedicated monographs, but it often figures in general accounts of plantation culture and the practices of enslavement. I am sure your father would also be very proud of your interest in family history. Allard. In ancient history, Lysander was the name of an esteemed Spartan naval commander and his literary cred comes from one of the two star-struck young men in Shakespeare's. that lists the slaves along with their surnames. It means 'bought land'. In his pension file, my great great grandmother his widow expressed that he chose his former enslaver surname because his father had been enslaved by them, too. Analyzing Creole names, especially those of African origin, demands a combination of historical and linguistic expertise that has not yet been systematically applied to slave names. ", "Call it a clan, call it a network, all it a tribe, call it a family. It is not uncommon to see an African American family listed with one surname in 1870 and another in 1880. . A. Lottie Smith was my name and what they called me before I met Phillip and was married to him. These cookies will be stored in your browser only with your consent. After I had returned to Louisville from Danville, My sister, Lizzie White, got to calling me Mollie, and it was with her that the name started. LOTTIE had been the name of the nurse before me and so they just continued that same name. i have no way to confirm this. The Washingtons of Wessyngton Plantation: Stories of My Familys Journey to Freedom, A Thank You Letter from Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth, Plantation Records Key Link to African American Past . Edmon S. Conner Recalls About His Career", "Law and the Cultural Production of Race and Racialized Systems of Oppression", "Runaway Slaves and Servants in Colonial Virginia", Slavery in the Courtroom: An Annotated Bibliography of American Cases, "Soldier of Furtune: John Smith before Jamestown", "YSTUMLLYN, JOHN ('Jack Black') (d. 1786), gardener and land steward | Dictionary of Welsh Biography", "Strong, Jonathan (c. 17471773), de facto freed slave", "Juan Francisco Manzano | Slave Narratives | The MoAD Salon | MoAD - Museum of the African Diaspora", "Relatos sobre la India Juliana. I just cannot imagine (thankfully) the idea of my name being changed with every new owner, with not having any idea of what my parents surnames were, of having a white father but not being able to have a father/child relationship with himand all the other myriad of circumstances that enslaved people faced. One of my grandfathers in Africa was called Jeaceo, and so I decided to be Jackson. Your current browser may not support copying via this button. This is due in part to officials imposing surnames on them based on their last owners. The, For descendants, I would add the substantial emotional impact of seeing an ancestor's name attached to a dollar value, or being valued in a list with silverware and cattle. This happened mostly on large plantations where several individuals had the same first names and a surname was used to distinguish them from one another. In these cases, unless the name change had been passed down in the family by oral history, it would be impossible to trace the family back any further. After emancipation, he became William Smith. Oxford Bibliographies Online is available by subscription and perpetual access to institutions. Students learn about the period of violence in the South from 1873-1876 and examine its role in influencing elections and ending Republican control of Southern state governments. . Danish West Indies, Denmark, Records of Enslaved People, 1672-1917 Also, the government seemed to be in a almighty hurry to have us get names. This had a profound impact on the Selfhood of each of the enslaveddisrupting ones presumed Mission in life, as indicated by ones name; shattering the sharing of personal and historical experiences, attitudes, and spirits towards life; and putting in disarray the philosophy of life framework and common sense values by which all Africans lived. It was after emancipation on that I went back to work for Col. Morrow and where I got the name Lottie, as already explained. Interestingly, the five most common American surnames as of 2010 haven't changed that much over time and are Smith, Johnson, Williams, Brown, and Jones. Register now! The name.Auber.is also.in.Haiti and.is of.French orign. Drawing on extensive archival records, this digital memorial allows analysis of the ships, traders, and captives in the Atlantic slave trade. Others who wanted no connection to their former owners used surnames like Freeman or Freedman. My mother's name was Octavia Smith and it was from her that I got it but where the name came from to her I never knew. Wide-ranging survey of naming practices in the (mainly Anglophone) Atlantic world both during and after slavery. I make extensive use of tables for organization, analysis and citation in my research, and they have proven very popular with genealogists. Elaine Fantham, Helene Peet Foley, Natalie Boymel Kampen, Sarah B. Pomeroy, H. A. Shapiro. I especially recommend Mother, Thy Name is Mystery! Wesley is one of a group of W-starting surname names reminiscent of the Old West that are making a comeback -- though it's not as well used as it was in the 1970s, when he ranked as high as Number 66. I was called mostly Lewis Smith till after the war, although I was named Dick Lewis Smith After the War, I was wearing the name Lewis Smith, but I found the negroes were taking the names of their fathers, like the white folks. We had to register as someone, so we could be citizens. I liked the name better than Octavia, and so I took it with me to Danville, and was never called anything else there than that name. You already know the rich historical terrain of FPOC in Louisiana, what terrific grounds for family research. Some of these examples come from the wonderful book, Voices of Emancipation: I served [in the War] as Henry Lock, the Lock being my old Massas name but since the War I have taken name of Rollie., [Edward] was owned by Drury Stovall and went by the name of Edward Stovall. 1-86-NARA-NARA or 1-866-272-6272, Finding Aids for the National Archives at Atlanta, National Archives Catalog (National Archives Identifier 2767350). She was a Murphy.. One thing for sure, historians are always expanding our knowledge on this topic.BTW, I am a big fan of your website and your work in the field! My Louisiana Creole ancestors who were free persons of color and former slaves practiced a unique naming tradition I think comes from Latin cultures. Names. Perhaps this caused some Slaves to ask: Am I my new name or am I still my old name? In many cases this is ignored and children use their fathers name! "Slave revolts in Puerto Rico: conspiracies and uprisings, 17951873"; by: Guillermo A. Baralt; Markus Wiener Publishers; harvnb error: no target: CITEREFAssociation_of_Muslim_Social_ScientistsInternational_Institute_of_Islamic_Thought2008 (, sfnm error: no target: CITEREFSmith2001 (, sfnm error: no target: CITEREFWhite2016 (, sfn error: no target: CITEREFBrands2012 (, sfnm error: no target: CITEREFMcFeely1981 (, Last edited on 22 February 2023, at 03:19, sued her master for her freedom on that ground, United States Court of Appeals for the DC Circuit, Diego Pacheco Tllez-Girn Gmez de Sandoval, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, South Carolina's 5th congressional district, List of the last surviving American slaves, Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom, Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, National Museum of African American History and Culture, "What is the divine purpose for sending prophets? Throughout the colonial period, as many as one-fifth of the enslaved people in North Carolina retained African names; Quash, Cuffee, Mingo, Sambo, Mustapha, and Sukey were among the most common recorded. Enslaved peoplethemselves sometimes chose names denoting weather conditions at the time of their child's birth or some distinctive feature of his or her appearance. ", "If you can't get rid of the skeleton in your closet, you might as well make it dance! Jackson: This name is a patronymic of Jack. . Enslaved people often transferred such names to later generations in modified form or relied on African naming traditions, such as "day names" or names reflecting the order of birth among siblings. Q. This page is currently showing names ranked from 1 to 1000. Ethereal and delicate, Cassandra was in the Top 70 throughout the 1990s but is now descending in popularity. State of residence is Missouri unless otherwise noted. I worked for him as nurse for his children, and my full and correct name was OCTAVIA, but the family could not catch on to that long name and called me LOTTIE for short. Is this the work of the evil spirits or from my bad karma? Is this my fate!To worsen matters, a given new European label applied only to one aspect of the nature (whereas his/her original name referred to a total identity) of the enslaved and this was an effective way to try to fragment a victims mindset. Peneus saved Daphne from Apollos romantic obsessions by transforming her into a laurel tree. How did you ever come by the name of "Mollie"? This database is a compilation of information on over four thousand slaves from Louisiana who were involved in manumission (the formal emancipation from slavery) between 1719 and 1820. I love to hear from my readers. . He was a planter with 20,000 acres of land in East Florida and was at the forefront of slavery in The . My father would be 105 if he were alive. Garcia is the Spanish variation of the word Gerald that means a pointed weapon, like a spear. Rank. The result was the birth of mulatto, quadroon, or mustee (mestee) children. Benson, Susan. Former slaves also interchanged surnames on census records. Proving their identity as former soldiers often revealed some of the most detailed explanations for former slaves choice of surnames. Robyn. Farley, (English Origin) Victorian-era last names meaning "fern woodland". This is common. Finding State Laws About Slaves and Free Blacks, More Suggestions for White Slaveholder Descendants, http://justthinking130.blogspot.com/2009/09/calvin-r-yarborough-where-it-all-began.html, http://justthinking130.blogspot.com/2013/11/many-rivers-to-cross-my-priscilla.html, https://www.historicpathways.com/articles.html, http://whitneyplantation.com/the-louisiana-slave-database.html. Distinctively Black names were thought to have risen from the Civil Rights and Black Power Movements, which promoted the use of names with connections to Africa. Testimony of Mollie Russell (widow of Phillip Fry), September 19, 1911: Q. In 1911, Barnett and Frys widow, Mollie, both applied for pensions from the government. Entre la construccin de la memoria y la ficcin histrica", "From Africa to India: Music of the Sidis and the Indian Ocean Diaspora (review)", "Mark and Phillis Executions, Burned at the Stake and Gibbeted in Puritan Massachusetts", "Letter from Paul Revere to Jeremy Belknap, circa 1798", "Re: Nancy Titsworth-1800-Livin - Genealogy.com", Association of Muslim Social Scientists & International Institute of Islamic Thought 2008, "Creolizing Natural Liberty: Transnational Obligation in the Thought of Ottobah Cugoano", "Madison and the White House, Through the Memoir of a Slave", "Black Slaves, Indian Masters: Slavery, Emancipation, and Citizenship in the Native American South, by Barbara Krauthamer (2013) Not Even Past", "Timeline of Missouri's African American History", "So Tom e Prncipe recorda o Rei Amador", "Black Christian Republicans: Delegates to the 1847 Liberian Constitutional Convention", "A Slave's Service in the Confederate Army", "Slavery and French Cuisine in Jefferson's Working White House", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_slaves&oldid=1140857860, This page was last edited on 22 February 2023, at 03:19. The resources Im getting from my colleagues through Facing History have been just invaluable. 782 Lists of Slave owners with names of slaves Tamme, 766 Tom, 766 West, 766 Will, 766 Barker, Nathaniel Harry, 591, 700, 746, 767 Barkley, Barbary Grace, 651 My fathers name was Gilbert Jackson, and after I was set free I took the name of my father, and have been known by the name Smith Jackson. CAs Push to Restore Voting Rights to System-Impacted Individuals Still in Custody, Eli Lilly to Cap Out-of-Pocket Insulin Costs, Asm. They are held at The National Archives (Kew, England). I hope youll sign up to receive my postsif you do, youll get a free PDF with some of my favorite tips! Harris: A patronymic meaning son of Harry. "Albumen print of enslaved women and their children near Alexandria, Virginia." I have been a researcher, writer, and lecturer for over twenty-five years. this page. There has been disagreement about whether it was slaveholders or the enslaved who gave the recorded names. Wheatley was traded into slavery at the age of 7 or 8 and imported to North America. Part of what drives me in this research, I think, is the feeling that I am reclaiming their stories, their names, and their very being, even if what I uncover is just a tiny bit. I belonged to him until emancipation. Of the 972 names of male Slaves recorded between 1619 and 1799 the leading ones were Jack, Tom, Harry, Sam, Will, Caesar, Dick, John, Robin, Frank, Charles, Joe and Prince. USA.gov, The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration Accueil > > Avr > 18 > Uncategorized > common last names for slaves in the 1800s. My Vimeo ON Demand video page lists six videos you can choose from to watch for 3 months ($15 each): -Finding the Last Slaveowner: Guidance and Case Studies, -Cluster Research: Using Groups of People to Find Your People, -Using Deed Records to Uncover Your Family, -Putting it All Together: Making Sense of All the Research You've Done and, -More Than Just a Name: Incorporating Social and Community History Into Your Research. Now, that parent's surname could very well be the surname of the most recent slaveholder or an earlier slaveholder. This suggests most of those African-Americans probably did come about that name from prior slaveholders (since we know they likely werent from Scotland;):) I think you just have to include all the variations of Culbert to see how that could be the case. Corbin Corbin has an Old English origin. 30 January 2022, [PAST EVENT], Eastern Standard Time: Join special guest genealogist Taneya Y. Koonce and I as we present our joint Zoom webinar, Organize Your Genealogy! Baptiste Meaning: derived from the name Bautista; the Spanish form of Baptist Origin: Spanish 3. Recognizable patterns of change in names and naming practices are evident from the mid-eighteenth century to the early nineteenth century and on through the 1860s. Also included here are common names among slaves, many of which were classical and had ties to the Bible or mythology, such as Keziah and Venus. Slave Names Below are some best cute and catchy slave names: Infirm Mite Lunn Amanda Walter Garner Hannah Delia Bastard Inferior Weevil George O'Hanlon Jordan John Owen Rachel Fetid Spider Betty Nathan York John Wright Wicked Whelp Thornton Dick Field Robert Dick William Hunter William Sam Kiner Augustus Dick a/k/a Richard Ferguson Foul Beast George Duncan Ludlow (1734-1808), colonial lawyer. I am researching the surname Culbert worldwide, and the data can be found at: culbert.one-name.net There are a growing number of African Americans with this surname, which I believe originates in Scotland. They are recorded with the Ashby surname on subsequent documents. Explore the most common surnames in England. .When I got home after the war, I was wearing the name of Lewis Smith, but I found that the negroes after freedom, were taking the names of their father like the white folks. Almost every major tome on slavery discusses slave naming practices in some form or fashion. Index to "Descriptive Recruitment Lists of Volunteers for the United States Colored Troops for the State of Missouri, 1863-1865" (NARA Microfilm Publication M1894 - 6 rolls) For more information about the records covered in this index, please contact the History and Genealogy Department. Abebe: The genesis of this Ethiopian name is Amharic, and it means 'flower' or 'blossom'. Private names used in the quarters included Abah, Bilah, Comba, Dibb, Juba, Kauchee, Mima, and Sena. He took his last enslaver surname. Renate, Ebba: One of the more unique girl names from the 1800s. I love that your example shows two brothers, who came to different conclusions about their surnames. 77th U.S. Col Inf and Co. D. U.S. Col H Art under the name Lewis Smith which was the name I wore before the days of slavery were over. And please do share posts that interest you. Your insight is always welcome and I am glad you shared these posts for other readers to see. Fernsby, (Old English Origin) Derived from the old English words meaning "fern farmstead". If we consider the diverse circumstances that the tragedy of slavery created, we can understand the reasons why. > | Index main page>| Index by slave owner's name, Index to "Descriptive Recruitment Lists of Volunteers for the United States Colored Troops for the State of Missouri, 1863-1865"(NARA Microfilm Publication M1894 - 6 rolls). A. Turner was deeply religious,. Thank you for your comment, Thats high on my to do list. Please share, in the comments below, examplesyou have come across of the surnames of enslaved people, especially if it was different from their last slaveholder. College, Advanced AA Gen Class, September 2011, AAHGS Annual Genealogy Conference, November 2008, Howard Comm. New surnames were created from a local regions name such as Smithfield the name taken might be Smith or Field. Major types on which most would agree are European place and literary names, European personal names in hypocoristic (pet or diminutive) form, biblical and classical names, and names of African origin. It comes from the same Greek root as 'ambrosia', the food of the gods, said to confer immortality. And now that it's been chosen by Gwen Stefani and Gavin Rossdale, it could take off as their first son's nameKingstonhas. 3. This is another instance of oral history being a key component in tracing African American ancestry. Isaiah derives from the Hebrew Yeshayahu, containing the elements. This happened mostly on large plantations where several individuals had the same first names and a surname was used to distinguish them from one another. By clicking Accept, you consent to the use of ALL the cookies. But the Slaves generally had two namesthe one given by the slave owner (e.g. Out of these, the cookies that are categorized as necessary are stored on your browser as they are essential for the working of basic functionalities of the website. You can also look up Charleston Manifests by Slave Owner These records are also available through the National Archives Catalog (National Archives Identifier 2767350). My mother then told me my fathers name was John Barnett, a white man, and I took up the name Barnett., My mothers name was Jane and she was called Jane Nunn because she belonged to the Nunns. Please submit permission requests for other use directly to the publisher. Unfortunately, I am not knowledgeable enough about African and Caribbean research in the areas you name. You can read about this in the following two posts on my blog. I am the applicant for pension on account of having served in Co. B. This potential brother had been sold to a local and remained there in SC. Free black slave holders could be found at one time or . It gives the age and sex of the slave and the number of slaves of each age and sex. On another branch, members of the Griffin family from around Campbell County VA all stuck together and are believed to have kept family bonds & name of their father after Emancipation. Enslaved people remained legally nameless from the time of their capture until their purchase by American enslavers. Who called you by that name and where was it done? How lucky you were to find that Freedmans Bank document! South Atlantic Creole A Spanish America After Independence, 1825-1900, Tudor and Stuart Britain in the Wider World, 1485-1685, Warfare, Medicine, and Disease in the Atlantic World. - Jane Howard, "Friends are God's apologies for relations." Here are some common black last names: Jackson Davis Brown Wilson Harris Lewis Clark Walker Hall Thomas Young Allen King Wright Scott Baker Adams Nelson Carter Mitchell Perez Roberts Turner Phillips Campbell Parker Evans Edwards Green Hall Baker Bell Coleman Crawford James Reyes Most Common Black Last Names Three formerly enslaved people discuss their names and the changes they underwent after Emancipation. His slaveholder was named David Humphries. Enslaved women were raped, creating children with white fathers who in most cases did not claim them and even sold them away. The name of the tragic mythological Trojan princess who was given the gift of prophecy by Apollo, but was condemned never to be believed, Cassandra has been used for striking characters in movies and soap operas. 2019 (cited under the Anglophone Caribbean) includes a good general introduction to slave naming. They reflect an acculturation process by which generations of enslaved people, increasingly removed from the direct influence of their first enslaved African ancestors, adopted the conventions of their enslavers, eventually creating a culture and value system all their own. Miracle, (Old English and Latin Origin) Derived from the first name Mauritius meaning "dark". That alone can make if difficult to research an African- American family during those years. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006. Wood were recorded as slave. On all subsequent census records, he is listed as John Lewis.